Introduction
According to the writer Prionsias Mac Cana, in comparison to other mythologies from all over the world, we have no ‘comprehensive view’ of the Irish mythological traditions, meaning we have no complete record of this mythological literature (1988, p. 31). It is evident that during the Middle Ages, Irish mythology was refashioned in a way that both preserved the original content and also added new content to suit the era in which it was written. This description evidently applies to many medieval literary materials that I have studied in this course, which include ‘Lebór Gabála Érenn’, ‘Scél Tuáin meic Chairill’’ and ‘Cath Maige Tuired’. In this essay I will be discussing how these Irish mythological traditions can be identified as ‘Old wine in new bottles’. This argument will outline how traditional tales were reworked to make a contemporary point, while at the same time successfully preserving the relevance of the older material which the traditions were based on.
Monastic Writings & Transition of Oral Traditions
Irish mythological literature has survived to this day because the scribes of ‘monastic scriptorie’ have recorded these tales in manuscripts (Mac Cana, 1988, p. 31-32). Ireland was the first country in Europe to use the ‘vernacular to create a written literature of any extent’ (Mac Cana, 1988, p. 32). As well as that, these writers wrote down the ‘biblical and native’ traditions documenting the ‘descent of man’, connecting the figures of Irish myths all the way back to Adam during the sixth century AD (Mac Cana, p. 32). In Mac Cana’s words, this illustrates ‘how the process of compromise and assimilation was already in progress’ before the end of the sixth century (1988, p. 33). It is widely agreed that monastic writings lack certain qualities that are known to be a part of universal mythology (Mac Cana, 1988, p. 31). Mac Cana writes that the topics of cosmogony and cosmography are barely mentioned within the texts (1988, p. 31). There is a lack of divinity within several Otherworldly characters that may have originally been gods and goddesses in Irish mythology (Ní Bhrolcháin, 2009, p. 26). There is also little to no surviving information available on the original belief systems of the Irish (Ní Bhrolcháin, 2009, p. 26).
According to Scowcroft, the union of oral and literary traditions can be quite problematic ‘for the textual critic’, as verbal traditions are ‘capable of intervening’ when it comes to the chronicling of written texts (1987, p. 93). It is important to note however, that the authors of the medieval text ‘Lebór Gabála Érenn’, or the ‘Book of Invasions’, did not remove or revise any sections of the written text. Instead, the scribes, who would have apparently revered these sagas, simply added specific content to these transcripts (Scowcroft, 1987, p. 93). Furthermore, it is evident that the recorded genealogies would have required extensive research, most of which, in the words of Scowcroft (1987, p. 93), ‘could not result from oral contamination’. In the following sections, I will be discussing the main historical texts which are perceived to be works of Christian analogy and pseudo-history.
Pseudo-History: Lebór Gabála Érenn
The sagas describing the synthetic history of Ireland are crucial when it comes to the discussion of mythological traditions being re-packaged into Christianised stories. According to McCone, these works of pseudo-history are often dismissed by scholars as nothing more than ‘bogus’ inventions of Christian scribes that ‘need to be peeled away’ in order to seek their pagan origins (1990, p. 54). However, as I have said before, I will be making the argument that these texts are an exemplary illustration of the term “old wine in new bottles”, because these pseudo-historical stories were used to make a contemporary point (McCone, 1990, p. 55).
As McCone states in her writings, Irish mythology was written down by scribes who lived in a heavily Christianised society, therefore it should be described as a ‘contemporary attribute of the…predominantly Christian culture’ (1990, p. 66). One of the primary reasons for this statement is the fact that there is a ‘thoroughly biblical dynamic’ within the origin tales of Christian Irish mythology (McCone, 1990, p. 66). Old Irish genealogical records link the alleged prehistoric ancestors of the kings and dynasties of Leinster and Munster all the way back to Noah, and subsequently, Adam (McCone, 1990, p. 66). But the best example of Christian-Irish pseudo-history lies with ‘Lebór Gabála Érenn’, which is in Carey’s words ‘a sweeping, unified account of the origins of Ireland and the Gaels’ (1993, p. 1). This mythological text was written with the intention of uniting pagan Irish traditions with the Christian worldview, therefore according to Scowcroft (1987, p. 81), it helped shed ‘great light on the political and cultural mythology of its authors’ (McCone, 1990, p. 66).
According to Scowcroft, the Bible and several works by Christian writers such as Eusebius, Isidore and Orosius, inspired the ‘historiographical context and framework’, as well as the ‘content’ of ‘Lebór Gabála Érenn’ (1988, p. 63). The introduction of ‘Lebór Gabála Érenn' gives an ‘epitome of biblical history’ by implementing the ‘first eleven chapters of Genesis’, beginning with the story of Creation and ending with the fall of the Tower of Babel (Scowcroft, 1987, p. 101). The text goes on to reveal that the descendants of Japheth, son of Noah, became the tribes who invaded Ireland (Scowcroft, 1987, p. 101). This tradition dates back to the early ninth century AD (McCone, p. 67). This saga states that Nél, son of Féinius Farsaid, an alleged descendant of Noah, went to Egypt and married the Pharoah’s daughter (Scowcroft, 1987, p. 102). Their son Gaedel Glas went on to create the Gaelic language, which was one of the ‘seventy-two that originated’ at the Tower of Babel (Scowcroft, 1987, p. 102). His descendant was Míl Espáine, leader of the Sons of Míl or the ‘Gaedil’, who were the last people to successfully conquer Ireland (Scowcroft, 1987, p. 102).
McCone asserts that these texts appear to be communicating to the audience that Ireland was elected by God to serve as ‘a promised land for her Gaelic conquerors as represented by the sons of Míl and their followers’
The relations between the invaders of Ireland and the Old Testament are quite evident. Cessair, the granddaughter of Noah, fled to Ireland in the hope that she would find a land ‘free of sin’ and a land that would also save her from ‘the Deluge’ (Scowcroft, 1988, p. 104). Similarly, the following invaders of Ireland all appear to be descended from Noah through his sons (Scowcroft, 1988, p. 101). According to McCone, the invasions of Ireland that take place before the Milesians arrive are quite similar to the ‘recurrent themes of famine and journeying between Mesopotamia, Canaan and Egypt’ that occurred during the wanderings of the Patriarchs in the Old Testament (1990, p. 67). As well as that, there are clear parallels between the Milesians’ journey from Spain to Ireland and the wanderings of the Israelites in the Old Testament, as the monastic scribes were clearly equating the prehistoric history of the Irish ‘with that of biblical Israel’ (McCone, 1990, p. 67). Both the Israelites and the mythical ancestors of the Irish journeyed from Egypt to find a land where their descendants would thrive. McCone asserts that these texts appear to be communicating to the audience that Ireland was elected by God to serve as ‘a promised land for her Gaelic conquerors as represented by the sons of Míl and their followers’ (1990, pp. 68-69).
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There is a theory widely held by scholars that during the eighth century, also the time when the earliest known version of ‘Lebór Gabála Érenn’ was published, Ireland may have been divided between the ‘overlordships of Tara and Cashel’ (McCone, 1990, p. 69). It is believed that because of this, only the ‘Connachta, together with their Uí Néill off-shoot, and the Eóganachta of Munster’ are recorded by synthetic historians as descendants of Míl’s two sons (McCone, 1990, p. 69). At first, all the other clans were not given such genealogies and were rendered inferior, but later these dynasties were also provided with ancestry lines (McCone, 1990, p. 69). The few that were relegated to unimportant status due to their lack of genealogical connections were apparently perceived as ‘Fir Bolg’ (McCone, 1990, p. 69). Therefore, according to McCone, ‘the narrative and genealogical dichotomy between the Fir Bolg and the Sons of Míl’ defined the ‘socio-political divide between the aithech-thúatha or subject peoples and the soér-chlanna or free lineages’ (1990, p. 69).
Nevertheless, it is evident from these scholarly studies that ‘Lebór Gabála Érenn’ successfully adapts and combines ‘pagan theology and contemporary politics’ and ‘biblical myths of origin, migration, and population’ through its synthetic genealogical histories (Scowcroft, 1988, p. 63). According to Carey, it is a piece of literature that is ‘full of challenges’ and ‘rich in rewards’, and is also a huge ‘repository of tradition, speculation, and creativity which has much to tell us about the background and the dynamics of medieval Irish intellectual life’ (1993, p. 19).
Another exemplary text that serves to unite Christianity and Irish mythological traditions through ‘a detailed history of the successive invasions is “Scél Tuáin meic Chairill’”, also known as ‘The Story of Tuán Son of Cairell’ (McCone, 1990, p. 69). In this tale, a meeting is depicted between two individuals who each represent old and new Ireland. A Christian missionary known as Finnia comes to the house of Tuán son of Cairell, who is revealed to be the last living member of the tribe of Partholón (Carey [transl.], 2003, p. 223). Tuán recounts his life story to the holy man, explaining how he had lived in several animal forms over many centuries, witnessed the invasions of Ireland and was eventually reborn as the son of the king Cairell (Carey [transl], 2003, pp. 223-225). This story is a good example of the interrelation between old pagan Ireland and Christianity, and according to McCone, also exemplifies the ‘standard scheme of five post-diluvian invasions’ (1990, p. 69). This too, is a traditional story that has been re-filled into new bottles to suit the contemporary period when it was documented.
Analogy in Literature
Mac Cana suggests that the authors of Christian Irish mythological literature probably used ‘factual situations and narratives to convey what were essentially abstract ideas’ within these stories (1988, p. 38). One primary example of this statement is the analogous connections between the Irish pagan Otherworld, which is a land of eternal youth, and the Christian afterlife known as Heaven (Mac Cana, 1988, p. 38). The mythological stories dealing with the Otherworld always describe it as a place where time and reality function differently, as one moment spent in this land of eternal youth could equate to several years in our world, or sometimes even the reverse may happen (Mac Cana, 1988, p. 38). Oisín, the son of Fionn MacCumhaill, stays in the Otherworld for a few years, but upon returning to Ireland, discovers that it has been hundreds of years since he first left. There is also evidently an analogy ‘between the nativity of Christ and the nativity of the divine Mongán’ in the mythological saga, ‘The Voyage of Bran’ (Mac Cana, 1988, p. 38).
Mac Cana states in his writings that analogous methods may have been used by the monastic scribes in order to ‘convey…a point of theological theory or ecclesiastical policy’ (1988, p. 38). Furthermore, it also seems that Irish Christian writers were rather intrigued by the idea of ‘conflicting concepts and realities’ overlapping, thus they represented this problem within ‘artistic or anecdotal’ moulds (Mac Cana, 1988, p. 38).
Additionally, a folk tale from an eighth-century anal tells of how the monks at Clonmacnoise came across a boat hovering above them, took its sailor prisoner and then released him due to fears that he would ‘drown if held too long underwater’ (Mac Cana, 1988, p. 38). Mac Cana writes that this story is one of many contemporary folk tales centred around humans breaking the barrier between our world and the mystical one that co-exists alongside it, except in this case it is a resident of the Otherworld who intrudes in our realm (1988, p. 38). He also notes that his appearance is perceived with ‘detached experimental curiosity’ by the highly educated monks of Clonmacnoise (1988, p. 39). Theologically, this folk tale seems to be preaching a message of ‘equable tolerance and complementarity’, while philosophically, it communicates the idea that ‘reality is as one perceives it, and that different perceptions of reality sometimes interpenetrate’ (1988, p. 39).
Cath Maige Tuired
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Stemming from this topic, there is reason to believe that the ninth century saga ‘Cath Maige Tuired’ has several attributes related to biblical views and contemporary issues (McCone, 1990, p. 70). This saga, which re-iterates how the Tuatha Dé Danaan came to Ireland and defeated the previous inhabitants Fir Bolg in the First Battle of Cath Maige Tuired, and after undergoing oppression at the hands of the monstrous Fomoire, defeated them also at the Second Battle of Cath Maige Tuired, similarly has several parallels with the Old Testament (McCone, 1990, p. 70). Firstly, in Old and Middle Irish, ‘Tuatha Dé’ translates as ‘God’s people’, which is also a term that refers to the Israelites (McCone, 1990, p. 70). According to McCone, this seems to be yet another attempt by the writers to paint Ireland as a kind of ‘promised land’ (1990, p. 70). Scholars are divided when it comes to the actual identity of the Tuatha Dé (McCone, 1990, p. 70). Some say that they were an ‘antediluvian race unaffected by the Fall or the Flood’, therefore they are an immortal race (McCone, 1990. p. 70). Others say that Tuatha Dé may be a nation of demons (McCone, 1990. p. 70). Another theory suggests that they may be connected to the Israelite tribe of Dan who according to McCone, were forced into the mountains (Jud. 1:34, cited in 1990, p. 70). The tribe of Dan ended up owning four special ‘talismans’, similar to how the Tuatha Dé came to possess the Four Treasures (McCone, 1990. p. 70).
Interestingly, McCone goes further by stating that the ‘medial position’ of the Tuatha Dé has allowed them to be equated ‘to Israel in relation to Fir Bolg and Fomorians but to Canaan in relation to the Milesians (1990. p. 70). Similar to how the Canaanites were defeated and massacred by the Israelites in the Old Testament, the Tuatha Dé were defeated at the hands of the Milesians and had their land stolen from them (McCone, 1990. p. 70). However, McCone also notes that the Fir Bolg appear to have a lot in common with the Canaanites (1990. p. 70). The name ‘Fir Bolg’ translates as ‘men of bags/wineskins’, and in the Book of Joshua, a group of Canaanites known as the Hivites of Gibeon avoided death at the hands of the Israelites by ‘pretending to have come from far beyond the boundaries of the promised land’ (McCone, 1990. p. 70).
The war between the Tuatha Dé and the Fomoire has many parallels with the hostile conflicts between the Israelites and the Philistines (McCone, 1990, p. 71) The Fomoire oppress the Tuatha Dé until Lugh Lámhfada appears and kills his grandfather, Balor of the Evil Eye, a member of the monstrous Fomoire, with a sling stone (Ní Bhrolcháin, 2009, p. 35). This has several similarities with the Biblical story of how David killed the giant Goliath with a sling-stone, thus saving the Israelites from the oppression of the Philistines (McCone, 1990, p. 71). Intriguingly, McCone states that the Fomoire share a biblical ancestor with the Philistines – Ham, son of Noah (McCone, 1990, p. 71).
There are also socio-political themes that would have held a position of great importance during medieval Ireland. One such theme is that of the ‘fír flatha’, which according to Ó Cathasaigh, is a term that ‘distinguishes a worthy king’ (1983, p. 3). Bres, the son of Elatha, displeased the Tuatha Dé Danaan because of his inability to act like a good king, therefore he was deposed (Ó Cathasaigh, 1983, p. 3-4). The three domains of ‘sacral kingship, martial force and agriculture’ were very important to the Medieval Irish (Ó Cathasaigh, 1983, p. 4). Sacral kingship is defined by ‘fír flatha’, and since he has ‘offended against the truth’, Bres has committed a grave sin by not treating his subjects befittingly, which is what the kingship had required him to do (Ó Cathasaigh, 1983, p. 4).
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The subject of satire is also introduced in ‘Cath Maige Tuired’ (Ó Cathasaigh, 1983, p. 4). Cairbre, the son of Etaín and the ‘fili’ or poet of the Tuatha Dé Danaan, seeks hospitality in the house of Bres, and subsequently produces a satirical piece ‘announcing the end of his prosperity’ (McCone, 1989, p. 123) after Bres mistreats him (Gray [transl.], 1982, p. 35). Satirists were an important part of society in Gaelic Ireland, therefore medieval audiences would have been very familiar with this concept. Poets had the power to express ‘public sentiment in the form of a satire’, meaning they determined how someone was publicly perceived (Ó Cathasaigh, 1983, p. 5; McCone, 1989, p. 124).
This story also applies to the importance of good hospitality, which is also outlined in an earlier episode in ‘Cath Maige Tuired’ (McCone, 1989, p. 124). Cridenbél the satirist visits the household of the Dagda and maltreats his host, leading the Dagda to bring about Cridenbél’s death. According to McCone, these stories heavily contrast with one another due the behaviours of the two hosts and the two guests, and there are also similarities between the good host and guest, and the bad host and guest (1989, p. 124). It is clear that these tales are attempting to remind the audience of the importance of respecting the roles of both their hosts and their guests.
Conclusion
In conclusion, these materials I have studied for this course very much fit the description ‘Old wine in new bottles’. All exemplify the method that the monastic writers used: preserving the old traditional tales by documenting them within newer narrative frameworks that was fitting for the Christian contemporary time period that they were living in. ‘Lebór Gabála Érenn’ and ‘Scél Tuáin meic Chairill’ serve the purpose of documenting the origins of Ireland, as well as its invaders, who extend from Partholón to the Gaedil, thus it is a mythological synthetic history which draws connections to biblical events and figures. Analogous motifs connected to Christianity can be seen throughout Irish mythological literature. ‘Cath Maige Tuired’ is a mythological saga that has several parallels with the Biblical exploits of the Israelites. Adding to this, it has several themes imbued within the narrative which are related to contemporary issues that were relevant during medieval Ireland. This monastic literature is proof that it is indeed possible to successfully fuse older traditions with more contemporary themes, without negating the importance of the original material.
Bibliography:
Carey, J. (1993), ‘A new introduction to Lebor Gabála Érenn’ (London)
Carey, J. [trans.] (2003), ‘Scél Tuáin meic Chairill. The Story of Tuán Son of Cairell’, in J.T. Koch and J. Carey (eds), The Celtic Heroic Age: Literary Sources for Ancient Celtic Europe & Early Ireland & Wales (Aberystwyth), pp. 223–225
Gray, E. (1982), Cath Maige Tuired: The Second Battle of Mag Tuired (London)
Mac Cana, P. (1988), ‘Myth into literature in early Ireland’, in R. Alluin and B. Escarbelt (eds), Mythe et Folklore Celtiques et leurs Expressions Littéraires en Irlande (Lille), pp. 31-43
McCone, K. (1989) ‘A tale of two ditties: Poet and satirist in Cath Maige Tuired ,’ in D. Ó Corráin et al. (eds), Sages, Saints and Storytellers: Celtic Studies in Honour of Professor James Carney (Maynooth), pp. 122-43.
McCone, K. (1990), ‘Pagan Past and Christian Present’, Chapter 3: ‘‘Pagan’ myth and Christian‘history’’, Maynooth, pp. 54-83
Ní Bhrolcháin, M. (2009), ‘An introduction to early Irish literature’ (Dublin, 2009), chapter 2: ‘The Mythological Cycle’, pp. 26-40
Ó Cathasaigh, T. (1983) 'Cath Maige Tuired as exemplary myth', in P. de Brún et al. (eds), Folia Gadelica (Cork), pp.1-19.
Scowcroft, R. (1987). Leabhar Gabhála. Part I: The Growth of the Text. Ériu, 38, 81-142. Retrieved May 19, 2021, from http://www.jstor.org/stable/30007523
Scowcroft, R. (1988). Leabhar Gabhála Part II: The Growth of the Tradition. Ériu, 39, 1-66. Retrieved May 20, 2021, from http://www.jstor.org/stable/30024129